Andaman Islands

Andaman Islands

The Andamans
Coordinates
Country  India
Capital Port Blair
Largest city Port Blair
Population 314,084
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
Andaman Islands
The Andaman Islands in relation to India and Burma (to the north)

The Andaman Islands (Hindi: अण्डमान द्वीप समूह, Bengali: আন্দামান দ্বীপপুঞ্জ, Tamil: அந்தமான் தீவுகள், Telugu: అండమాన్ దీవులు) are a group of Indian Ocean archipelagic islands in the Bay of Bengal between India to the west and Myanmar (formerly Burma) to the north and east. Most of the islands are part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory of India while a small number at the north of the archipelago belong to Myanmar.

Contents

History

Comparative distributions of Andamanese indigenous peoples, pre-18C vs present-day

The name "Andaman" first appears in the work of Arab geographers of the ninth century, though it is uncertain whether ancient geographers like Ptolemy also knew of the Andamans but referred to them by a different name. They were also described as being inhabited by fierce cannibalistic tribes by the Persian navigator Buzurg ibn Shahriyar of Ramhormuz in his tenth century book Ajaib al-Hind (The wonders of India), in which he also mentioned an island he called Andaman al-Kabir (Great Andaman).[1][2] During the Chola Dynasty period in South India (800-1200AD), which ruled an empire encompassing southeastern peninsular India, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Maldives, and large parts of current day Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Malaysia,[3] the island group was referred to as Timaittivu (or impure islands).[4] Marco Polo briefly mentions the Andamans (calling them by the name "Angamanain"), although it is doubtful that he visited the islands himself because he also claimed that the human inhabitants had dogs' heads.[5] Another Italian traveler, Niccolò de' Conti (c. 1440), mentioned the islands and said that the name means "Island of Gold". A theory that became prevalent in the late nineteenth century, and has since gained momentum, is that the name of the islands derives from the Sanskrit language, by way of Malay, and refers to the deity, Hanuman.[6] In the Age of Exploration, travelers often noted the "ferocious hostility" of the Andamanese.

The Maratha admiral Kanhoji Angre used the Andamans as a base and "fought the British off these islands until his death in 1729." [7][8]

British Occupation and Penal Colony

In 1789 the government of Bengal established a penal colony on Chatham Island in the southeast bay of Great Andaman, now known as Port Blair (after the British Army officer Col. Blair who founded it). After two years, the colony moved to the northeast part of Great Andaman and was named Port Cornwallis after Admiral William Cornwallis. However, there was much disease and death in the penal colony, and the government ceased operating it in May 1796.[7]

In 1824 Port Cornwallis was the rendezvous of the fleet carrying the army to the First Burmese War. In the 1830s and 1840s, shipwrecked crews who landed on the Andamans were often attacked and killed by the natives, alarming the British government. In 1855, the government proposed another settlement on the islands, including a convict establishment, but the Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced a delay in its construction. However, since the rebellion gave the British so many prisoners, it made the new Andaman settlement and prison an urgent necessity. Construction began in November 1857 at Port Blair using inmates' labor, avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp that seemed to have been the source of many of the earlier problems at Port Cornwallis.

In 1867, the ship Nineveh wrecked on the reef of North Sentinel Island. The 86 survivors reached the beach in the ship's boats. On the 3rd day, they were attacked with iron-tipped spears by naked islanders. One person from the ship escaped in a boat.[9]

For some time sickness and mortality were high, but swamp reclamation and extensive forest clearance continued. The Andaman colony acquired notoriety following the murder of the Viceroy Richard Southwell Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo on a visit to the settlement (8 February 1872) by a Muslim convict, a Pathan from Afghanistan, Sher Ali. In the same year the two island groups, Andaman and Nicobar, were united under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair.

The garrison consists of 140 British and 300 Indian troops, with a few local European volunteers. The police are organised as a military battalion 643 strong. The number of convicts has somewhat diminished of late years and in 1901 stood at 11,947. The total population of the settlement, consisting of convicts, their guards, the supervising, clerical and departmental staff, with the families of the latter, also a certain number of ex-convicts and trading settlers and their families, numbered 16,106. The labouring convicts are distributed among four jails and nineteen stations; the self-supporters in thirty-eight villages. The elementary education of the convicts' children is compulsory. There are four hospitals, each under a resident medical officer, under the general supervision of a senior officer of the Indian medical service, and medical aid is given free to the whole population. The net annual cost of the settlement to the government is about six pounds per convict. The harbour of Port Blair is well supplied with buoys and harbour lights, and is crossed by ferries at fixed intervals, while there are several launches for hauling local traffic. On Ross Island there is a lighthouse visible for 19 miles (31 km). A complete system of signaling by night and day on the Morse system is worked by the police. Local posts are frequent, but there is no telegraph and the mails are irregular.

The Ross Island Prison Headquarters, 1872

The above accounts, written while Britain still controlled India, may leave the impression that these settlements were a model of progressive penal reform. Indian accounts, however, paint a different picture. From the time of its development in 1858 under the direction of James Pattison Walker, and in response to the mutiny and rebellion of the previous year, the settlement was first and foremost a repository for political prisoners. The Cellular Jail at Port Blair when completed in 1910 included 698 cells designed for solitary confinement; each cell measured 4.5 m (15 ft) by 2.7 m (9 ft) with a single ventilation window 3 metres (10 ft) above the floor. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar was one of the notable prisoners there.

There was a prison here in the 10th century. The Indians imprisoned here referred to the Island and its prison as "Kala Pani" (Black water)[10] (See also movie by the same name, which deals with some of these events Kalapani[11]). While the exact number of prisoners who died in this camp is not fully known, it is estimated they number in the thousands (some of the names of the political prisoners who perished can be found here [12] - this list is predominantly of those from eastern India and is incomplete). Many more died of harsh treatment, as well as through the harsh living and working conditions, in this camp.[13]

The Viper Chain Gang Jail on Viper Island was reserved for troublemakers, and was also the site of hangings. In the 20th century it became a convenient place to house prominent members of India's independence movement.

Japanese occupation

The Andaman islands were later occupied by Japan during World War II. The islands were nominally put under the authority of the Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (Provisional Government of Free India) headed by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. Netaji visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as Shaheed (Martyr) & Swaraj (Self-rule). On December 30, 1943 during the Japanese occupation, Subhas Chandra Bose, who was controversially allied with the Japanese, first raised the flag of Indian independence. General Loganathan, of the Indian National Army, was Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which had been annexed to the Provisional Government. After the end of the war they briefly returned to British control, before becoming part of the newly independent state of India.

Ross Island in 2004
Andaman Islands

At the close of the Second World War the British government announced its intention to abolish the penal settlement. The government proposed to employ former inmates in an initiative to develop the island's fisheries, timber, and agricultural resources. In exchange inmates would be granted return passage to the Indian mainland, or the right to settle on the islands. The penal colony was eventually closed on August 15, 1947 when India gained its independence. It has since served as a museum to the independence movement.

Recent history

In 1974, a film crew and anthropologist Mr. Trilokinath Pandit attempted friendly contact by leaving a tethered pig, some pots and pans, some fruit and toys on the beach at North Sentinel Island. One of the islanders shot the film director in the thigh with an arrow. The following year, European visitors were repulsed with arrows.[9][14][15]

On August 2, 1981, the ship Primrose grounded on the North Sentinel Island reef. A few days later, crewmen on the immobile vessel observed small black men were carrying spears and arrows and building boats on the beach. The captain of the Primrose radioed for an urgent airdrop of firearms so the crew could defend themselves, but did not receive them. Heavy seas kept the islanders away from the ship. After a week, the crew were rescued by an Indian navy helicopter.[9]

On January 4, 1991, Mr. Pandit had the first known friendly contact with the Sentinelese.[15]

Until 1996, the Jarawa met all visitors with flying arrows. From time to time they attacked and killed poachers on the lands reserved to them by the Indian government. They also killed some workers building the ATR Andaman Trunk Road, which traverses Jarawa lands. The first peaceful contact with the Jarawa occurred in 1996. Settlers found a teenage Jarawa boy named Emmei near Kadamtala town. The boy was immobilized with a broken foot. They took Emmei to a hospital where he received good care. Over several weeks, Emmei learned a few words of Hindi before returning to his jungle home. The following year, Jarawa individuals and small groups began appearing along roadsides and occasionally venturing into settlements to steal food. The ATR may have interfered with traditional Jarawa food sources.[16][17][18]

In April 1998, American photographer John S Callahan organized the first surfing project in the Andamans, starting from Phuket in Thailand with the assistance of Southeast Asia Liveaboards (SEAL), a UK owned dive charter company. With a crew of international professional surfers including Chris Malloy (USA), Tamayo Perry (USA), James Catto (AUS), Hans Hagen (USA), Aaron Lambert (USA) and Josh Bradbury (USA), they crossed the Andaman Sea on the yacht Crescent and cleared formalities in Port Blair. The group proceeded to Little Andaman Island, where they spent ten days surfing several spots for the first time, including Jarawa Point near Hut Bay, and the long right reef point at the southwest tip of the island, named Kumari Point. The resulting article in SURFER Magazine, "Quest for Fire" by journalist Sam George, put the Andaman Islands on the surfing map for the first time.[19] Footage of the waves of the Andaman Islands also appeared in the film "Thicker than Water", shot by cinematographer Jack Johnson, who later achieved worldwide fame as a popular musician. Callahan went on to make several more surfing projects in the Andamans, including a trip to the Nicobar Islands in 1999.

On 26 December 2004 the coast of the Andaman Islands was devastated by a 10-metre (33 ft) high tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. On 11 August 2009 a magnitude 7 earthquake struck near the Andaman Islands, causing a tsunami warning to go into effect. On 30 March 2010 a magnitude 6.9 earthquake struck near the Andaman Islands.

Boa Sr, the last speaker of the ancient language Bo, died on January 28, 2010, at the age of 85.[20]

Geography

The Andaman Archipelago is an oceanic continuation of the Burmese Arakan Yoma range in the North and of the Indonesian Archipelago in the South. It includes some two hundred islands in the Bay of Bengal with the Andaman Sea to the east between the islands and the coast of Myanmar.[7] North Andaman Island is 285 kilometres (177 mi) south of Myanmar although a few smaller islands including the three Coco Islands which belong to Myanmar are further north, while at the southern end of the archipelago the Ten Degree Channel separates the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands to the south. The highest point in the Andamans is Saddle Peak (720 metres (2,360 ft)).

The natural vegetation of the Andamans is tropical forest with mangroves on the coast. Most of the forests are evergreen but there are areas of deciduous forest on North Andaman, Middle Andaman, Baratang and parts of South Andaman Island. The rainforests of the islands are similar in composition to those of the west coast of Myanmar and are largely unspoilt despite logging and the demands of the fast-growing population driven by immigration from the Indian mainland. There are protected areas on Little Andaman, Narcondam, North Andaman and South Andaman but these are mainly aimed at preserving the coast and the marine wildlife rather than the rainforests. [21] Threats to wildlife come from introduced species including rats, dogs, cats and the elephants of Interview Island and North Andaman.

Climate

The climate is typical of tropical islands of similar latitude. It is always warm, but with sea-breezes. Rainfall is irregular, but usually dry during the north-east, and very wet during the south-west, monsoons.

Fauna

The islands are home to a number of endemic species and more that live only here and on the Nicobar Islands to the south. Mammals endemic to the Andaman Isalnds include three shrews, the red-toothed Crocidura hispida, the white-toothed Crocidura andamanensis, and Jenkins' Shrew Crocidura jenkinsi and the Andaman Horseshoe Bat (rhinolophus cognatus) and the Andaman Rat (rattus stoicus). Endemic or near endemic birds include a serpent-eagle Spilornis elgini, a crake Rallina canningi, a wood-pigeon Columba palumboides, a cuckoo-dove Macropygia rufipennis, a coucal Centropus andamanensis, a Scops Owl Otus balli, a hawk-owl Ninox affinis, the Narcondam Hornbill (Aceros narcondami), a woodpecker Dryocopus hodgei, a drongo Dicrurus andamanensis, a treepie Dendrocitta bayleyi and the White-headed Starling (sturnus erythropygius). The islands also have a number of endemic reptiles, toads and frogs. There is a sanctuary for saltwater crocodiles.[22]

Demographics

For information on the indigenous languages, see Andamanese languages

Hypothesized map of human migration based on mitochondrial DNA, depicting the route taken by mtDNA haplogroup M through the Indian mainland and the Andaman Islands, possibly on to Southeast Asia

The population of the Andamans was 356,000 in 2010[23], having grown from 50,000 in 1960. Of the people that live in the Andaman Islands, a small minority of about 1,000 are indigenous Adivasis of the Andamans. The rest are mainly divided between Bengali, Hindi, Tamil and Punjabi speaking people from the mainland.[24]

The Andamanese is a collective term to describe the peoples who are the aboriginal inhabitants of the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands, located in the Bay of Bengal. The term includes the Great Andamanese, Jarawa, Onge, Shompen, Sentinelese and the extinct Jangil. Anthropologically they are usually classified as Negritos, represented also by the Semang of Malaysia and the Aeta of the Philippines.

The Andamans are theorized to be a key stepping stone in a great coastal migration of humans from Africa via the Arabian peninsula, along the coastal regions of the Indian mainland and towards Southeast Asia, Japan and Oceania.[25] Genetic analysis indicates that male Onges and Jarawas almost exclusively belong to Haplotype D, which is also found in Tibet and Japan, but is rare on the Indian mainland and elsewhere in Asia.[26] However, this is a subclade of the D haplogroup not been seen outside of the Andamans, which marks the insularity of these tribes.[27] The only other group that is known to predominantly belong to haplogroup D are the Ainu aboriginal people of Japan.[28] Male Great Andamanese, unlike the Onge and the Jarawa, have a mixed presence of Y-chromosome haplogroups O, L, K and P, which places them between mainland Indian and Asian populations.[27]

The mtDNA distribution, which indicates maternal descent, describes all the Onge and a heavy majority of the Great Andamanese as belonging to haplogroup M, found ubiquitously in India, where it represents 60% of all maternal lineages.[27][29] Given the insularity of the Andamanese, this has led geneticists to believe that this haplogroup originated with the earliest settlers of India during the coastal migration that brought the ancestors of the Andamanese to the Indian mainland, the Andaman Islands and further afield to Southeast Asia.[30] Some anthropologists postulate that Southern India and Southeast Asia was once populated largely by Negritos similar to those of the Andamans,[25] and that some tribal populations in the south of India, such as the Irulas are remnants of that period.[31][32]

Government

Port Blair is the chief community on the islands, and the administrative centre of the Union Territory. The Andaman Islands form a single administrative district within the Union Territory, the Andaman district (the Nicobar Islands were separated and established as the new Nicobar district in 1974).

Cultural references

The islands are prominently featured in Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes mystery, The Sign of the Four, as well as in M.M. Kaye's "Death in the Andamans." The magistrate in Lady Gregory's play Spreading the News had formerly served in the islands. A principal character in the book "Six Suspects" (ISBN 0-385-60815-2) by Vikas Swarup is from the Andaman Islands. Kalapani (Malayalam) Kala Pani (Hindi) Sirai Chaalai (Tamil) a 1996 Indian film by Priyadarshan on freedom struggle and the lives of prisoners in Andaman Islands.

Infrastructure

Airports

The only airport in the islands is Vir Savarkar Airport in Port Blair, which has scheduled services to Kolkata and Chennai. The airport is under control of the Indian Air Force. Daytime flying is allowed.

Due to the length of these routes and the small number of airlines flying to the islands, fares have traditionally been relatively expensive, although cheaper for locals than visitors. Fares are high during peak seasons of spring and winter, but fares have been decreased over the time due to large expansion of aviation industry in India.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Adhir Chakravarti, Narendra Nath Bhattacharyya (1998), India and South-East Asia Socio-Econo-Cultural Contacts: Socio-econo-cultural Contacts, Punthi Pustak, ISBN 8186791140, http://books.google.com/?id=xLtAAAAAMAAJ, retrieved 2008-11-16, "... The Ajaib al- Hind of Buzurg (c. AD 1000) mentions an island named Andaman al-Kabir ..." 
  2. ↑ Buzurg ibn Shahriyar, translated by: L. Marcel Devic and Peter Quennell (1928), The Book of the Marvels of India: from the Arabic, G. Routledge & sons 
  3. ↑ Woodbridge Bingham, Hilary Conroy, Frank William Iklé (1964), A History of Asia, Allyn and Bacon, http://books.google.com/?id=r2ILAAAAIAAJ, "... Maldives, Nicobar, and Andaman islands all were brought under the sway of its navy. In the Tamil peninsula itself Chola subdued the kingdoms of Pandya ..." 
  4. ↑ Government of India (1908), The Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Local Gazetteer, Superintendent of Government Printing, Calcutta, http://books.google.com/?id=rrwBAAAAYAAJ, "... In the great Tanjore inscription of 1050 AD, the Andamans are mentioned under a translated name along with the Nicobars, as Timaittivu, Islands of Impurity and as the abode of cannibals ..." 
  5. ↑ Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Francesco Cavalli-Sforza (1995), The Great Human Diasporas: The History of Diversity and Evolution, Basic Books, ISBN 0201442310, http://books.google.com/?id=ApuuiwUkEZ0C, "... Contact with whites, and the British in particular, has virtually destroyed them. Illness, alcohol, and the will of the colonials all played their part; the British governor of the time mentions in his diary that he received instructions to destroy them with alcohol and opium. He succeeded completely with one group. The others reacted violently ... Marco Polo said they were fearsome, but, because he also says they had dogs' heads, I doubt he had been to the islands himself ..." 
  6. ↑ William Wilson Hunter, James Sutherland Cotton, Richard Burn, William Stevenson Meyer (1908), Imperial Gazetteer of India, Great Britain India Office, Clarendon Press, http://books.google.com/?id=TgC2AAAAIAAJ, "... The name has always been in historical times some form of Andaman, which more than probably represents Handuman, the Malay from Hanuman, treating the islands as the abode of the Hindu mythological monkey people or savage aboriginal ..." 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Olivier Blaise, Andaman Islands, India, PictureTank, http://www.picturetank.com/___/series/ff5d5b4d962b08bc130471b877292c58/en/Andaman_Isl.,_India_(1).html, "... Kanhoji Angre, a Maratha admiral had his base on the island in the early 18th century. From there, he attacked passing Portuguese, Dutch and English merchant vessels. Kanhoji Angre was never defeated. He died in 1729. The British established their first colony in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in 1789, which was abandoned in 1796 ..." 
  8. ↑ Asra Nomani (2004), Tantrika: Traveling the Road of Divine Love, HarperCollins, ISBN 0062517147, http://books.google.com/?id=lvZHqSnWLPsC, "... A Maratha admiral, Kanhoji Angre, fought the British off these islands until his death in 1729 ..." 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Goodheart
  10. ↑ "History of Andaman Cellular Jail". Andamancellularjail.org. http://www.andamancellularjail.org/History.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-14. 
  11. ↑ "Kala Pani (1996)". Imdb.com. http://imdb.com/title/tt0255289/. Retrieved 2010-05-14. 
  12. ↑ "Andaman Islands Political Prisoners". Andamancellularjail.org. http://www.andamancellularjail.org/ListOfRevolutionaries.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-14. 
  13. ↑ "Opinion / News Analysis : Hundred years of the Andamans Cellular Jail". The Hindu. http://www.hindu.com/2005/12/21/stories/2005122107881100.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-14. 
  14. ↑ Pandit
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 McGirk
  16. ↑ Sekhsaria
  17. ↑ Valelly
  18. ↑ Survival
  19. ↑ [1]
  20. ↑ "Lives Remembered". The Telegraph. 2010-02-10. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/7207731/Lives-Remembered.html. Retrieved 2010-02-22. 
  21. ↑ http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0101_full.html
  22. ↑ David Knowles Writer. "Crocodile Kills NJ Woman Lauren Failla Snorkeling in Indian Ocean". AOL News. http://www.aolnews.com/nation/article/crocodile-kills-nj-woman-lauren-failla-snorkeling-in-indian-ocean/19467474?icid=main. Retrieved 2010-05-14. 
  23. ↑ http://india.gov.in/knowindia/ut_andaman.php
  24. ↑ "Andaman & Nicobar Islands at a glance". Andamandt.nic.in. http://andamandt.nic.in/profile.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-14. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Spencer Wells (2002), The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey, Princeton University Press, doi:10.1002/ (inactive 2009-08-11), ISBN 069111532X, http://books.google.com/?id=WAsKm-_zu5sC, "... the population of south-east Asia prior to 6000 years ago was composed largely of groups of hunter-gatherers very similar to modern Negritos ... So, both the Y-chromosome and the mtDNA paint a clear picture of a coastal leap from Africa to south-east Asia, and onward to Australia ... DNA has given us a glimpse of the voyage, which almost certainly followed a coastal route va India ..." 
  26. ↑ "Y-DNA Haplogroup D and its Subclades - 2008". Isogg.org. http://www.isogg.org/tree/ISOGG_HapgrpD08.html. Retrieved 2010-05-14. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Kumarasamy Thangaraj, Lalji Singh, Alla G. Reddy, V. Raghavendra Rao, Subhash C. Sehgal, Peter A. Underhill, Melanie Pierson, Ian G. Frame, and Erika Hagelberg (2002) (PDF), Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population, http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf, retrieved 2008-11-16, "... Our data indicate that the Andamanese have closer affinities to Asian than to African populations and suggest that they are the descendants of the early Palaeolithic colonizers of Southeast Asia ... All Onge and Jarawa had the same binary haplotype D ... Great Andaman males had five different binary haplotypes, found previously in Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Melanesia ..." 
  28. ↑ Tajima, Atsushi; et al. (2004), "Genetic origins of the Ainu inferred from combined DNA analyses of maternal and paternal lineages", Journal of Human Genetics 49 (4): 187–193, doi:10.1007/s10038-004-0131-x, PMID 14997363 
  29. ↑ Revathi Rajkumar et al., Phylogeny and antiquity of M macrohaplogroup inferred from complete mt DNA sequence of Indian specific lineages, BMC Evolutionary Biology 2005, 5:26 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-5-26
  30. ↑ Phillip Endicott, M. Thomas P. Gilbert, Chris Stringer, Carles Lalueza-Fox, Eske Willerslev, Anders J. Hansen, and Alan Cooper (January 1, 2002), "The Genetic Origins of the Andaman Islanders", American Journal of Human Genetics (The American Society of Human Genetics) 72 (1): 178, doi:10.1086/345487, PMID 12478481, PMC 378623, http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=378623, retrieved 2008-11-16, "... The high frequency of M2 is consistent with its greater age, and its distribution suggests that many of the populations viewed as the autochthons of India because of their cultural inheritance may also be genetic descendants of the early settlers of southern Asia ..." 
  31. ↑ K.V. Zvelebil (1982), The Irula language, O. Harrassowitz, ISBN 3447022477, http://books.google.com/?id=NlSCAAAAIAAJ, "... into the low jungles of the Nilgiris (such movement might have been instigated eg by the advancing Australoids pushing out an earlier pre-Australoid ..." 
  32. ↑ Stephen Fuchs (1974), The Aboriginal Tribes of India, Macmillan India, ISBN 0333197828, http://books.google.com/?id=2hEkAAAAMAAJ, "... Guha thinks that the Negritos were the earliest racial element in India. He believes that the Kadar, Irulas and Panyans of south India have a Negrito strain, even though he admits that they are not pure Negritos ..." 

References

 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

External links